======================SCIENCE_MISC=====================================

Acids_&_carbonlates   liberate carbon dioxide   produce a salt and water.
                      CaC03 + 2HCI              -> CaCl2       + H20 + CO2_gas 
                      Co+2 + C03-2 +2H30+ +2CI- -> Ca+2 + 2CI- +3H20 + CO2_gas 

                      CaC03 +2HCI               -> CaCl2       + H20 +CO2_gas 
                      Co+2  +C03-2 +2H30+ +2CI- -> Ca+2 + 2CI- +3H20 +CO2_gas 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
vacuum tube,          electrons      from cathode to anode. 
dischargingcell       negative ions  from cathode to anode. 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
voluem =              22.4138 liter
R =                   8.31441J/K  PV=RT   PV=nRT R = .0821 liter-atms/K/mole 
1 Mole =              6.022045e23 units
----------------------------------------------------------------------------       
eathin lncline        23.45 deg
dia sun               1.39e9n
dia moosn 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
c = light =           sqrt(1/e*u)  Z = sqrt(u/e)  = 377 ohms    

c = sqrt(S/u)         S = tension on wire = pressure/volume
u = mass per lenght   or mass per volume


soundpress            loevel spl  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
man                   3megcal/day = 3/4 lb fat
running               600kcal/hr  wlk = 200, sit = 100


------------------------------------------------------------
Rochelle_salts        NaKC4H4O6 double salt, used in medicine, 
                      sodium potclssiun tartrate,,
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Space Power           Miniature_Radioisotope_Power_Source 
                      About the size of a small flashlight,
                      a proposed unit could power 
                      small instruments for years. 
                      
                                             16.5cm
                              _________________________________
                             |  Radioisotope 7 AA LiTiS2 Cells |
                          + _|__    _____   _______  _______   |
                             |  |==|     | |_______||_______|  |
                          _ _|__|==|_____| |_______||_______|  |  4.7cm    
                             |    Insulate |_______||_______|  |
                             |_________________________________|
                      
                             PowerController and Thermalpile
                      
                      NASA's Jet Propulsion LaboratorL: Pasadena, California 
                      A proposed miniature power source 
                      would generate electricity 
                      for years without addition of fuel or 
                      dependence on sunlight. 
                      Called the powerstick, it would be relatively inexpensive
                      lightweight, and rugged in comparison 
                      with other radioisotope 
                      thermoelectric generators that have 
                      been designed in recent years. 
                      The powerstick could supply power to 
                      small vehicles or scientific 
                      instruments in remote locations on Earth 
                      or in outer space.
                      Some envisioned uses include Mars miniature 
                      rovers and monitoring 
                      equipment for toxic or nuclear storage sites. 
                      The powerstick consists 
                      of a radioisotope heater unit, a 
                      thermopile made of state-of-the-art 
                      thermoelectric material, a rechargeable 
                      battery, and control circuitry 
                      (see figure). During a full discharge 
                      from an initial full charge, 
                      the battery could supply 28 W.h of energy 
                      (1 A.h at 28 V). The total 
                      mass of the power stick would be 
                      approximately 380 grams. 
                      The radioisotope heater unit is a spot heater, 
                      produced by the U.S. 
                      Department of Energy, that contains a 
                      relatively small amount of 
                      radioisotope fuel and is commonly used on 
                      spacecraft. This unit 
                      provides 1 W of thermal power. Multilayer 
                      thermal insulation would direct 
                      most of the heat flux toward the thermopile, 
                      battery, and control 
                      circuitly, where it would not only supply 
                      energy for thermoelectric 
                      conversion, but would also maintain the 
                      battery and circuitry at the 
                      proper operating temperature. The thenopile 
                      would convert some of this 
                      thermal power to 40 mW of continuous electric 
                      power, which would be 
                      used to trickle-charge the batte´y. It would 
                      take about one month to 
                      fully recharge the battery after full 
                      discharge. 
                      
                      The thermopile consists of about 1000 bismuth 
                      telluride legs that 
                      are 3 cm long and have a square cross section 
                      of 1/3 mm on a side. 
                      The battery in the powerstick would consist 
                      of fourteen LiTiS2 
                      rechargeable cells of standard AA size, 
                      characterized by low 
                      self-discharge rate. The energy densities 
                      of these cells are 
                      120 W.h/kg - about four times that of 
                      nickel/cadmium cells. The 
                      28-V output of the battery could be 
                      downregulated by a microchip 
                      regulator or a dc-dc converter to various 
                      lesser voltages with 
                      an efficiency of about 85 percent. 
                      
                      This work was done by Artur B. 
                      Chmielewski of Caltech for NASA's 
                      Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 
                      For further information, write 
                      in 25 on the TSP Request Card. NPO- 19339 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 ____________________
                                |\ PPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP  
                                | T                   T
                                | 4                   T
                                | 1  4                T
                                | 1                   T
                                |  1     4            T    PVT surface air
                           ^    |  1                  T
                          /|\   |   1          4      T
                           |    |   T 2            4  T
                         Pres   |   T     2           3
                                |    T              2  3
                                 \   T                  T
                                  \   T                  T 
                                   \  T                   T
                                    \  T                   T
                            \ |      \  T                   T
                            _\|       \  T                   T      
                             Vol       \  VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV  
                                        \ |                   |
                                         \|___________________|
                                           <---  Temp
                      
                      
                            1            2            3           4
 Carnot cycle          
                        ||      ||   ||  ||  ||   ||      ||   ||      ||
                        ||  ||  ||   ||__||__||   ||  ||  ||   ||      ||
                        ||__||__||   ||______||   ||__||__||   ||  ||  ||
                        ||______||   ||      ||   ||______||   ||__||__|| 
                        ||      ||   ||  ^   ||   ||      ||   ||______||
                        ||  ^   ||   ||  |   ||   ||  |   ||   ||  |   ||   
                        ||  |   ||   ||  |   ||   ||  v   ||   ||  v   || 
                        ||______||   ||______||   ||______||   ||______||
                        |________|   |________|   |________|   |________|
                        Isothermal   Adiabatic    Isothermal   Adiabatic
                        expansion    expansion    compression  compression
                        high temp                 low temp
                      
                      Carnot cycle
                      
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
Distance                = velocity*time + acceleration*time^2/2
velocity                = acceleration*time 
                      
                      
                          ______
                         | MASS |__\  Force_Newtons=Mass_Kgm*Accelerate_m/s^2
                         |______|  /  Force_lbf=Mass_Slugs*Aceler_ft/s^2
                      
ENERGY_kinetic           = Mass*Velocity^2/2 
                      
                      
                      
FRICTION                    |   Force_tan
                           \|/                     FRICTION
                          __V___  Force_Friction
                         |coef_u|__\  
                         |______|  /  Force_Friction =coef_u*Force_tan
                      ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  metal_u =0.5  glass_u =1 telfon_u =0.04
                      
                      
Torque                       ____                _____
                            |__  \______________/  ___|
                           /   \                  /
                           \//_/  ______________  \___
                           //____/              \_____|
                        ||//
                        ||/___
                         -----  Torque = Radius*Force
                      
                      
                         ___      
Acceleration_gravity    /   \         
                        \___/   Acceleration_gravity = g = 9.8m/sec^2             
                          |     Force_Newtons=Mass_Kgm*Accelerate_m/s^2            
                         \|/
                          V     100Kgm = 220.46lbs Man 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
ENERGY_potential_J    = Force_Newtons*Distance_m
                             Joule = 1_Newton*1_meter  = Kgm*(m/s)^2
                             Watt = Joule/sec 
                                       _
                               |      | |~~~~~~~~~~~
                               |      | \___________
                              / \     |
                             |~~~|    | 1KWHr = 1_liter_H20 @ 367meters
                             |___|    |        (1_liter weights 9.8Kgm)
                                      | 
                          ~~~~~~~~~~~~|
                          ___________/ 
                      
                      
1KWHr                 = 220lb_man @ 108ft
                           ___---  ---___  
                          '------`'------`       
                                /()\         ____________
                               /_||_\      _/ 
                                         _/
                                       _/  1KWHr = 220lb_man @ 108ft
                                     _/
                        ____________/
                      
                      
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Force_gravity         = G_constant*Mass_1*Mass_2/Radius
                      
G_constant            = 6.670E-11 Newtons*meter^2/Kgm^2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
                                    ___    STOKE'S LAW
STOKE'S LAW                    _---_   \
                              /     \   |   Force=6*PI*Radius*Velocity*Viscosity
                             |   --->| \|/  Force=K_Constant*Velocity
                              \_ R _/   V  
                                ---   Velocity
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Free_Fall_velocity    = V_terminal*(1-exp(-k_constant*time/mass)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

                      
                      centipitcal_Force- Velocity^2/Radius
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Orbit_earth           = Radius_earth*sqrt(g_earth/radius_satelite)
                      
                      T_period 
                      = 2*PI*radius_satelite^(3/2)/(Radius_earth*g_earth^(1/2))
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Energy_Kinetic        = Mass*Velocity/2
                      
Energy_gravity        = - G_constant*Mass_earth*Mass_satellite/Radius
                      
Force_spring          = K_constant*Distance "elastic force"
                      
Energy_spring         = K_constant*Distance^2/2
                      
                      Power = Force*velocity
                      Momentum = Mass*velocity
                      Tangental_speed = angular_velocity*radius
                      Moment_of_interia = Sum_all_i(mass_i*radius_i^2)
                      Torque = Moment_of_interia*angular_acceleration
                             =Force*Radius
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      Lontitudal_strain = delta_length/length "tensile strain"
Youngs_modulus        = stress/strain
Stress                = Force/Area
                      
                      for metal   Youngs_modulus = 10=>30Meg_lbs/in^2
                                           Lead  = 2Meg_lbs/in^2
                      
                      92 stop  
                                          ___
                                        X/  / height
strear_strain         = delta_X/height  /__/ 
                      
strear_modulus        = (Force_Tangent/Area)/(delta_X/height)
                      
                      for metal   strear_modulus = 3=>10Meg_lbs/in^2
                                           Lead  = .8Meg_lbs/in^2
                      
Volume_strain         = delta_volume/volume
Bulk_modulus          = (delta_pressure)/(delta_volume/volume)
                      
                      Bulk_modulus  =~ Youngs_modulus 
                      
compressablity        = 1/Bulk  water =(34lbs/in^2)^-1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Spring_harmonic       = Mass*Velocity/2 + K_constant*Distance^2/2
period                = 2*PI*Mass/K_constant
                      
                      Suspended_spring_period = 2*PI*Mass/K_constant
                      
pendulum_period       = 2*PI*sqrt(Length/gravity)
                      
                                 
                                _ /_/_/_
                                   /
                                  /
                                _/_
                               |   |
                               |___|
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      Tidal waves shallow depth  c = sqrt(g*h)
                      Tidal waves shallow depth  c = sqrt(g*h/2*PI)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Density                         Gold/Silver = 10=>20 gm/cc
                                Alum/Iron   = 3=>8 gm/cc
                                water       = 1 gm/cc
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
Surface_tension                              /\
                                            /  \
                                           /    \
                                         _/      \_
                                        (_)      (_)
                              __________/ \______/ \________
                      
                      
                      Surface_tension = force to lift a loop of wire
                                     = Force/(2*length)
                      water = 70dynes/cm
                      oil/alcohol =~30dynes/cm
                      
                      Pressure_inside_soap_bubble = 
                      4*Surface_tension/radius... bigger bubble=more pressure
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bernoullis equation   Bernoullis equation  constant =
                      
                      pressure +density*gravity*height +density*velocity^2/2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 viscocity            viscocity   "stokes law"
                      Force = viscocity*Area*(delta_velocity/delta_length)
                      
                        one poise - 1dyne*sec/cm^2
                        oil = 10 poise
                        water = 1centipoise
                        air = 181micro poise
                      
                      Pipe_fuild_Quantity =
                       = (PI/8)*(Radius^4/viscocity)*(delta_pressure/length)
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Velocity_terminal     = (2/9)*(radius^2)*(gravity/viscocity)*(density_differnce)
                      
                      Lift_force= (1/2)*Wing_Area*density*(V_1^2 -V_2^2)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reynolds_Number       Reynolds_Number = above is turbulent
                      
                      Reynolds_Number = density*velocity*diameter/viscocity
                      
                      Reynolds_Number = 216 for air, 1000 for water
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Temperature_expansion = delta_volume/delta_temperature
                      metals = 40 to 70 ppm
                      quartz is 1ppm
                      liquid is 200 to 1000ppm
one calorie           = 1/860 watt*hours
one BTU               = 251.996 cal
Heat capacity         metal is 30 to 200 millical/(gm*C)
                      water is 1000 millical/(gm*C)     defined..
Heat of fusion        water is 79cal/gm
Heat of vapor         water is 539cal/gm
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thermal_conductance   metal_copper_alum = 1/2 to 1 (cal/sec)/(cm*deg_C)
                      ice/concrete = 1 to 2 milli (cal/sec)/(cm*deg_C)
                      wood = 100micro (cal/sec)/(cm*deg_C)
                      air = 60micro (cal/sec)/(cm*deg_C)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      Planks_spectral_emission =
                      W_f = (2*PI*h/c^2)*(f^3)/(exp(h*f/Kt)-1)
                      c = speed_light
                      
                      Radiation_black_body
                      = Wbb = universal_constant*Temp^4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
universal_constant    = 5.672E-8 watts/(m^2*K^4)
                      pressure*volume = Number_atom*R_constant*Temp
Volume                = 22.4 liters   
1atm                  = 1.01E6dynes/cm^2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Adiabatic             = no heat enters or leaves
isochoric             = volume the same
iso thermal           = constant temperature
isobaric              = constant presssure
effeciency_carrot     = 1-Tc/Th
Entropy               = delta_heat/temperature  =1cal/deg_K
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
heat 1kgm water       0 to 100 C
                                   /373
                         S2 -S1 = |    mc*(dt/T) =mc*ln(373/273)
                                  /273
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Travelling wave       = string on tension
tension               = s  mass_per_unit = u
velocity              = sqrt(tension/mass_per_unit)
                      
tranverse_impulse     = s*delta_x*time/c
tranverse_momentum    = u*c*delta_x*time
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fluid_wave            c = sqrt(gravity*height) = fuild
                      c = sqrt(youngs_module/density) = bar
                      c = sqrt(Bulk_module/density)   = bulk
                      c = sqrt(alpha*K*T/M )   = M_molecular_wave 
                      c =sqrt(1/(e0*u0))     phi=u0*H   eo*E
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
                                     H ^
                                      /|\-
                                       |    -
                                       |______\ E
                                        \     /-
                                         \    -
                                          \ - 
                                        -  \
                                      -     \  
                                    E /______\
                                     -\      |\
                                        -    | \  
                                           -\|/ \
                                             V H \-
                                                 _\|
                                                   S
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Electrical            c =sqrt(1/(e0*u0))     phi=u0*H   eo*E
                      Z = E/H = sqrt(u0/e0) = 377ohms
Columbs_law           force = K_coul*q1_coul*2_coul/radius^2
                      K_coul = 8.98E9Newtons*meter^6/coul^2
                      
Energy_density        = e0*E/2
Cap                   = e0*A/length
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Magnetic Force        = q_coul*(velocity X B_field)
B_field               = d_Phi/d_area
circular orbit        radius = mass*velocity/(B_field*q_coul)
B_field               = u0*number_turns*H = uo*H
L_inductance          = Number*Phi/current 
Energy                = L_inductance*current^2/2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sound_intensity       = Pressure_Amplitude/(2*density*velocity)
max_tolerable_sound   = 94uW/cm^2
                      (280dynes/cm^2)/(2*(1.22E-3gm/cc)*3.46E4cm/sec)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      softest = 10E-16W/cm^2
                      conversation =10uW/cm^2
                      shouting =30uW/cm^2
                      120dB =200dynes/cm^2
                      80dB = 2dynes/cm^2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      1Gev = gamma rays = Proton rest mass
                      1Mev = gamma rays = electron rest mass
                      1Kev = X rays
                      1ev = light
                      1mV = short wave
                      1uV = broadcast
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
bremsstahlung         "braking radiation"  Xrays
                       
                                     |     __
                                     |    /  \ Nucleus
                                     \    \__/
                                      \
                                       \__________\ electron
                              |  Xray             /
                              |/__ 
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Compton_effect        light is scatterred by electrons
                                                 __
                                                  /| lower frequency
                         Photon ___\  (e)   ==>  /    Photon
                                   /              
                                                 (e)   
                                                   _\|
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
momemtum of photon    = p = m*c =E*c/c^2 = h/wave_length
                      Energy = h*v
                      
                      Pair production, cannot happen in empty space
                      photon needs to be near a massive particle
                      
                                      __                 __    __
                            Nucleus  /  \      Nucleus  /  \    /|
                                     \__/  = =>         \__/  (e) 
                                                              
                          Photon______\                     (-e)
                                      /                   |/_
                      
                      
                      Pair anilihation, can happen in empty space
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Photoelectric effect  Full energy of photon goes into "bounded system"
                      
                      delta_E*delta_time >= h   delta_p*delta_x >= h  
                      
                      stationary waves require whole number of wavelengths
                       in a orbit. 
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      A free electron cannot absorb a free photon, 
                      it must be bounded
                      
                      A free electron cannot emmit a free photon, 
                      it needs to be near a photon.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      Large molecules  10E-6cm
                      atom             10E-8cm
                      proton           10E-13cm
                      quark            10E-16cm
                      electron         10E-16cm
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

                      
                                ^ L   
                               /|\          _  momentum
                              __|-------__  /|    
                             /  |  Radius \/
                             \_          _/ 
                                --------
                      
Angular_mometum        = Radius X mometum
                      
                                    |<-----2a--->|
                                              _------_   
                      energy only depends    /        \    
                      on "a"          __----/ --__     \
                                     /  2a  |     \--->|
                                     \__    |   _ / a  |
                                        ----\---       /
                      min_angular_mom_orbit  \_      _/max_angular_mom_orbit
                                               ------
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
                      1 watch batterie draws 40u
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      Snell's law  n1*sin(theta_1) = n2*sin(theta_2)
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      exp(j*X)  cos(x) +j*sin(x)
                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      Maxwell's Equations
                         __
                         \/ dot J = -delta_p/dt
                         __
                         \/ cross E = -delta_B/dt    V=delta_Phi/dt
                         __
                         \/ cross H = J+ delta_D/dt    H =I*N
                         __
                         \/ dot D = p   
                         __
                         \/ dot B = 0